Book & Author
Blanche R. D’Souza: Harnessing the Trade Winds
By Dr Ahmed S. Khan
Chicago, IL
“By the Winnowing [Winds]
and those bearing a burden [of water]
and the ships floating gently”
The Qur’an, 51:1-3
Monsoon plays a vital role in the lives of the people of South Asia. The Arab and Indian sailors have used Dhows to harness monsoon winds for the past two thousand years. Seasonal nature of Monsoon allowed sailors to stay in distant ports — East Africa, Horn of Africa, Persia, Sumatra, Java and China — for some time to promote trade and cultural exchanges between people of distant lands. Recent excavations at Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro (2,500 – 1,500 BC) suggest that people of the great Indus Valley Civilization used monsoon winds for their trade with Mesopotamia.
Harnessing the Trade Winds —The Story of the Centuries-Old Indian Trade with East Africa, using the Monsoon Winds (2008) by Blanche D’Souza, presents a historical overview of Monsoon trade links, and highlights the contributions of Arab and Indian sailors, traders and laborers in the development of Africa under various colonial powers. The author presents her narrative in eighteen chapters: 1. Trading Links with Africa before Recorded History, 2. Early Indian Ocean Trade, 3. Indians in Africa; Indians in East Africa, 4. The Sultanate of Zanzibar, 5. Indians in Zanzibar, 6. Indians in Tanganyika and Uganda, 7. Indians in Kenya, 8. Indians and the British, 9. Indians and Arabs, 10. Indians and Portuguese, 11. The Indian Trader, 12. Indians and Other Traders, 13. The Indentured Indian, 14. The Uganda Railway, 15. The Trading Winds, 16. Indians and the Slave Trade, 17. Horticultural Produce Introduced into Africa from Asia, and 18. Globalization by Trade. The narrative is accompanied by an index and a list of references.
Blanche D'Souza aka Nee Rocha (d. August 7, 2018, Urbana, IL, USA) was born in Karachi, Pakistan. She received her education in Karachi, Pakistan, and Mumbai, India. She spent her adult life in Nairobi, Kenya, where she taught at St Terea’s Boys School, and later served as a cataloger at the Nairobi office of the US Library of Congress. She had a keen interest in history and researched the influence of Indian migration on East Africa trade, labor and cultural-set against Arab, British and Portuguese rivalries in the Indian Ocean. Her research effort yielded Harnessing the Trade Winds. Reflecting on the importance of her work, the author observes: “In all my research I found that Arab, and particularly European, sources of information downplayed the importance of Indian trade in the Indian Ocean which goes back at least three thousand years BC. Harnessing the Trade Winds attempts to kindle in the Indian diaspora justifiable pride in the achievements of its forebears in East Africa, and indeed in other parts of the world. In East Africa they promoted the development of agriculture and industry and the globalization of trade stemming from their trading activities.”
Commenting on the nature of the book and the colonial times, the author in the preface notes: “This book records my journey to uncover the remarkable trade that existed between India and East Africa for at least three millennia - a phenomenon that has thus far gone largely unmarked by historians. After being away from Africa since the age of six I returned to Kenya in October 1951 on completion of my education in Karachi… I started teaching at the Dr Ribeiro Goan School, Nairobi in January 1952. Independence had come to India in 1947 and so, having lived a few years in independent Pakistan, I felt I was going back in time in colonial Kenya as regards discrimination by color and race. I got to thinking about the history we had learnt in school. Freedom fighters were portrayed as troublemakers and traitors and believe it or not, our young minds actually thought so! About this time the Mau Mau freedom movement was gaining momentum in Kenya. My parents lived in Nyeri 'in the thick of it' one might say. On one of my trips home for the holidays I heard that Mr Gama Pinto who worked for the Colonial Administration in Nyeri, had a son Pio imprisoned by the British in Lamu in the Portuguese fort, because of his anti-British/pro-African sentiments. Pio was very ill at this time and his father, Mr Gama Pinto was asked to make a trip to Lamu to tell his son that he would be released if he promised not to get involved in politics. I thought, as did many Indians, that he would listen to his father! But one had to know Pio better. A very dejected Mr Gama Pinto returned with Pio's answer. Luckily, Pio recovered from his illness in prison.”
Referring to her impetus for authoring the book, the author observes: “While shopping in Nairobi's Indian Bazaar like everyone else, I noticed that these dukawallas [Dukaanwallas: Shopkeepers] were no different from those I had encountered in Bohori Bazaar in Karachi. I wondered if they were related. Yes, they were; they had come from the same country originally. Most of them spoke very poor English. How come? After having lived for so long in a British colony? But I discovered later that they were proud of their origin and their mother tongue. So, when did they get here, how, why? One day I would find out.”
And soon the author started to find out answers to her questions by travelling to far locations and conducting research at Kenya National Archives (Kenya), Zanzibar Archives (Zanzibar), Asiatic Society Library (Mumbai), University of Mumbai, Kalina Campus, Jawaharlal Nehru Library, and Xavier Center of Historical Research (Goa). Reflecting on her research efforts the author notes: “In all my research I found that Arab and particularly European sources of information downplayed the importance of Indian trade in the Indian Ocean which goes back at least three thousand years BC. Harnessing the Trade Winds attempts to kindle in the Indian diaspora a justifiable pride in the achievements of its forebears in East Africa, and indeed in other parts of the world, who helped the development of agriculture, industry and the globalization of trade, stemming from their trading activities in East Africa. I have consistently used the term Indian for peoples of the Indian sub-continent of pre-independent India. These are the adventurers who ventured out of their homeland with trade goods, in search of trade. They are the true pioneers of trade and globalization and even though these early traders had no intention of settling in Africa, circumstances changed the course of their lives.”
In the foreword, Dr Sultan Somjee, Curator of the National Museums of Kenya, reflecting on the historical vacuum that exists about the contributions of Asian African communities, observes: “There is a vacuum in historical awareness about the formation of cultures and nations at the western rim of the Indian Ocean. This vacuum affects not only how Asian African communities view themselves but also the making of national identities in the East African regions emerging from colonialism. Today there are a few Asian Africans, in fact only a handful, whose youth was spent in the era of the twin Indian sub-continental and East African freedom movements. They are the elders who carry the spirit of the time. Many of them adhere to an East African diaspora group which continues a vibrant discussion on racism and colonialism; rise of nationalism and Black racism and their subsequent emigration from East Africa as undesirable citizens. Blanche D'Souza is an elder of this colonial-to-nationalist transition period. Her book Harnessing the Trade Winds is a testimony of a commitment to complete telling a story untold, or at best half told. Her story is an observation made from her life in British India and colonial Kenya. Often, I have encountered not only a general public but also academic opinion that African history is all Black and White”
Expounding on the historical perspective about Monsoon, the author observes: “For centuries the Arabs and Indians knew how to use the Monsoon winds which blew their Dhows northeast towards Africa from December to April and a few months later, May to September, changing direction to become the southwest Monsoons, taking them back to India. The traders who came to East Africa with the northeast Monsoons were from India, Arabia, Indonesia, Persia, Ceylon and China. Pre-nineteenth century trade followed a triangular route; west coast of India, the Arabian coast, East African coast and back to India. It is believed that they had been trading with Africa for over 2,000 years…The whole traffic with other countries in those pre-steamer days was led on in sailing ships called dhows or gurabs, bhaglas and gangas. The Indian ship-building industry was well organized and the ships' design comparable even to those of the East India Company's of the 19th century…These Dhows were built in India and the Persian Gulf.”
Commenting on the design traits of Dhows, the author notes: “In India they had a very ancient traditional design. At first the boards were 'sewn' together with ropes made of coconut fiber. Nails were not used because of a superstition that the metal would be attracted towards the bottom of the sea. Later the boards were still 'sewn' together and led with a gum for which Mafia Island on the East African coast, was Important source…Dhows had pointed projecting prow and stern, single forward-sloping mast made of palm frond matting shaped in a square sail. They ranged from 30 to 50 tons, some that came in Surat ranged from 50 to 500 tons. Bhaglas and gangas came from Cutch, they had square sterns, high poops and long prows, one or two palm matting masts, 50 to 60 tons reaching 160 tons. Even though they had their distinguishing marks the sailing ships came to be known by one name, Dhow.”
Describing types of trade winds, the author notes: “It was the Trade Winds that facilitated traffic in the Indian Ocean. Dhows used to come from and return to India 'in their proper seasons'. Those which came with the northeast Monsoons (kaskazi) in November/December from India, Muscat and the Benedir coast and returned in March/ April were termed Mosam (Arabic) or Avlani (Gujerati). Those which came with the same northeast Monsoons but stayed longer and returned to India in June-August were known as Dhamani. Speed depended on catching the wind at its 'most suitable' strength.”
Commenting on the discovery of the Monsoons, the author states: “The discovery of the Monsoons is credited to Hippalus. According to Charles Vanderlinden Hippalus was not the name of any individual, the Monsoons named by Indians. In AD 45 Romans discovered the secret of the Monsoons and a little later in AD 50 the Greeks stumbled upon the knowledge. If the wind called Hippalus happens to be blowing it is possible to arrive in forty days at the nearest mart in India called Muzuris (Mangalore). Indians who set sail at the beginning of Typus (December) can go and return in the same year carrying products of India, silk, cotton, cotton cloths, diamonds, precious stones, ginger, spices, ivory. Cotton was extremely rare for other countries except India.”
In ancient times, sailors used to carry birds on their ships as navigation aids. The author describes the practice of carrying crows onboard: “The proof the Indian crow that had already established itself in the Mauritian jun. It was an ingenious practice of the early Indian travelers to carry with them trained birds with strong wings on voyages to guide them to shore in case of stormy weather or other difficulties. This instinct of birds, especially crows, to fly towards land was well known. There are references to shore-finding crows in the Digha Nikaya and the Baveru Jataka as they carried sailors to safety on their trading expeditions...”
Discussing the establishment of the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the author states: “The first Arabs to settle on the East African coast were known as Ithnashara Twaifa or Twelve Tribes; Thalatha Twaifa (three tribes) and Tisa Twaifa (nine tribes). In Mombasa, these early settlers were simply known as the 'Twelve Tribes'... There is no definite information about the exact date of settlement. In AD 975 they were joined by Hassan bin Ali and his six sons from Persia [who] arrived in a fleet of seven ships. The whole of the East African coast was under the influence of the Twelve Tribes, as they called themselves. The chief ports of settlement north to south were, Mogadishu, Barava, Siu, Pate, Lamu, Malindi, Kilifi, Mombasa, Vumba, Pemba, Zanzibar, Mafia, Kilwa, Comoros Isles and Mozambique. Among the coastal settlements the State of Kilwa was the leading settlement. The Kilwa Chronicle tells how Hassan bin Ali bought the island from the African Chief whose price was as much colored cloth as stretched round the entire island, which was about fifteen miles. At this time Kilwa was an Island only at high tide. In 1498 Vasco da Gama found that Kilwa, not Zanzibar, was the most important center of trade.”
Reflecting on the accomplishments of the first Sultan of Zanzibar and Oman, the author observes: “Sultan Seyyid Said (1806-1856) ascended to the throne of Oman and Zanzibar in 1806. Seyyid Said, called the merchant Prince, recognized the importance of trade as an economic factor in the enrichment of himself and his realm. In 1840 he made Zanzibar his principal residence…. When Seyyid moved his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar in 1840 his bodyguard made up of men from Baluchistan… [Seyyid] the first resident Sultan of Zanzibar, fostered the Indian community in Zanzibar by giving them complete religious, social and economic freedom…Arab plantation owners became his court…Others arrived from Muscat to exploit the mainland markets…As important as the Arabs were the Indian residents in Zanzibar and the coast were perhaps more important, since almost the whole commercial and financial business on which the prosperity of Arab East Africa depended, was in their hands…A considerable number of Indians came to Zanzibar in Seyyid Said's reign, from 200 in 1819 to 5,000 in 1844, [and] 6,000 in 1859.”
Describing the details of the Indian travelers’ voyage to Africa from their native villages, the author observes: “Travelers to East Africa knew that the time had come to leave India. When the time came for leave-taking the whole village as the shore the night before. Some of the passengers were twelve years, leaving home for the first time. The seamen perform puja, the voyagers together with their families bowed to their go offerings of coconuts and sweet rice. The women placed a tilak on the forehead of the travelling husband, brother or son for giving him a piece of 'sugar candy' to bring him back safely…The minimum cost of travel was Rs 10… Passengers slept on deck grouped by religious communities. They were vegetarian and according to their caste culture they could not eat food cooked by anyone outside their caste. Life …was difficult…even during calm weather they would encounter at least two frightening storms, especially at the crossing. Their only solace was in religion. The Captain, having studied the ocean currents over a time, was confident of his ability to take the ship safely to its destination…steering the ship by the sun and at night by the stars. He carried a hundred tons of cargo and enough food and water to last them for the journey to Mombasa where they again stocked up with food and water…As they approached the Equator the wind became violent and high waves. When the boat began to toss, the passengers joined hands in a circle and sang verses from the holy books…The Captain stood at the helm, fearlessly and…would not relax…voyage of 2,500 miles to Mombasa took at least twenty-six days…The return journey to India was undertaken at the start of the west Monsoons beginning in April...”
Expounding on the practice of slavery and indentured labor in Africa, the authors states: “Contracts and Wages of the indentured were drawn up by British administrators along with numerous regulations to ensure the 'protection' of the field hands. In reality, the of these immigrant workers were controlled by the all-encompassing lure contracts which regulated: Working hours - sixteen a day, seven days a week, so that even weddings had to take place at night. Lodgings - separate for men and women, even married couples. Medical treatment - each estate had its own facility and even though inadequate, had to be used. Duration of stay - three years, renewable for another three. Penalty -1 1/2 days' pay cut for each day of absence. The pay was also fixed for the entire contract of indenture at the time fining, no change. The 'hill coolies' were given a monthly wage of Rs 5.00 plus rations of rice, spices and ghee (clarified butter). The document, drawn up between the dangurs or hill coolies or tribals, and the company. By 1839 thousands of Indians were imported into Mauritius, as slaves and then as indentured workers…Between 1640 and 1917 about two million Indians transported out of India, first as slaves and later as indentured labor for the construction and transportation industry. Of the total number of indentured laborers imported into Africa by 1903, nearly 8% died and 2% returned to India. By 1917 indentured labor slowly began to end and by 1926 it was effectively abolished.”
Reflecting on the construction of the Uganda Railway by Indian laborers, the author notes: “Men would die during the building of the railway and men would live because of it. Famine would be a thing of the past and because of its towns would be built - and cities too. In October 1895, the Indian Emigration of 1893 was legalized to implement the recruitment of Indian labor in the building of the Uganda Railway. Nearly 32,000 laborers and artisans plus 5,000 subordinate employees were contracted for three years. These included stone masons, iron smiths, carpenters, plate layers and wheel wrights, all highly skilled in their own field.”
Referring to an array of foreign plants brought to Africa, the author notes: “Madagascar was settled by peoples of Indonesia about BC 2,000. They brought rice and bananas to Africa which became an important staple in the Bantu diet. About the same time India introduced crops on the East African coast which became important to Swahili culture. Sugarcane, coconuts, Asian rice, root plants, and lentils. Sugarcane was introduced from India into Kenya, Uganda and Mauritius.”
The book also contains an extensive list of successful businesses started by Asians in Africa. The author cites success stories of Indian people in East Africa and mentions expulsion of Asian people from Kenya and Uganda (by Idi Amin) during the 1970s but does not explore the factors responsible for the resentment against Asians by the local population.
Harnessing the Trade Winds — The story of the Centuries-old Indian Trade with East Africa, using the Monsoon Winds by Blanche R. D’Souza is an interesting book. The author has done a wonderful job of collecting a plethora of information and facts about contributions of people from the sub-continent in the development of East Africa via Monsoon Trade and economic activities. It is an enjoyable read for all interested in the history of Monsoon Trade and Anthropology.
(Dr Ahmed S. Khan - dr.a.s.khan@ieee.org - is a Fulbright Specialist Scholar, 2017-2022).
